THE MEANING OF POETRY AND WISDOM
Poetry
Approximately one-third of the Old Testament is written in poetic form; if printed all together it would exceed in length the whole of the New Testament. The best known poetry is found in the Psalms, followed perhaps by that in Proverbs and other Wisdom books. Further, only seven books of the Old Testament are without any poetry: Leviticus, Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Haggai and Malachi. New Testament poetry includes...
1. quotations from the ancient poets...
Acts 17:28...“...for in Him we live and move and exist, as even some of your own poets have said, 'For we also are His children.‘” (NASB)
Titus 1:12...“in the hope of eternal life, which God, who cannot lie, promised long ages ago...” (NASB)
1st Corinthians 15:33... “Do not be deceived: "Bad company corrupts good morals.”
(NASB)
2. possible first-century Christian hymns...
Philippians 2:5 – 11... “Have this attitude in yourselves which was also in Christ Jesus...” (NASB)
1st Timothy 3:16... “By common confession, great is the mystery of godliness: He who was revealed in the flesh, Was vindicated in the Spirit, Seen by angels, Proclaimed among the nations, Believed on in the world, Taken up in glory.” (NASB)
2nd Timothy 2:11 – 13... “It is a trustworthy statement: For if we died with Him, we will also live with Him; If we endure, we will also reign with Him; If we deny Him, He also will deny us; If we are faithless, He remains faithful, for He cannot deny Himself.” (NASB)
3. passages in the mold of Old Testament poetry...
Luke’s Magnificat (1:46 – 55), Benedictus (1:68 – 79), Gloria in Excelsis (2:14), and Nunc Dimittis (2:29 – 32)
4. passages that have the grand and exalted style of poetry, such as...
Jesus’ lament over Jerusalem (Luke 13:34 – 35... “"O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, {the city} that kills the prophets and stones those sent to her! How often I wanted to gather your children together, just as a hen {gathers} her brood under her wings, and you would not {have it!} "Behold, your house is left to you {desolate;} and I say to you, you will not see Me until {the time} comes when you say, 'BLESSED IS HE WHO COMES IN THE NAME OF THE LORD!'")” (NASB) parts of the Upper Room Discourse (John 14:1 – 7... "Do not let your heart be troubled; believe in God, believe also in Me. "In My Father's house are many dwelling places; if it were not so, I would have told you; for I go to prepare a place for you. "If I go and prepare a place for you, I will come again and receive you to Myself, that where I am, {there} you may be also. "And you know the way where I am going.“ Thomas *said to Him, "Lord, we do not know where You are going, how do we know the way?” Jesus *said to him, "I am the way, and the truth, and the life; no one comes to the Father but through Me. "If you had known Me, you would have known My Father also; from now on you know Him, and have seen Him.") (NASB)
Interpreters of the Bible are often unaware of the special hermeneutical demands of poetry. This means that we often must take a much more tentative attitude in interpreting biblical poetry.
1. quotations from the ancient poets...
Acts 17:28...“...for in Him we live and move and exist, as even some of your own poets have said, 'For we also are His children.‘” (NASB)
Titus 1:12...“in the hope of eternal life, which God, who cannot lie, promised long ages ago...” (NASB)
1st Corinthians 15:33... “Do not be deceived: "Bad company corrupts good morals.”
(NASB)
2. possible first-century Christian hymns...
Philippians 2:5 – 11... “Have this attitude in yourselves which was also in Christ Jesus...” (NASB)
1st Timothy 3:16... “By common confession, great is the mystery of godliness: He who was revealed in the flesh, Was vindicated in the Spirit, Seen by angels, Proclaimed among the nations, Believed on in the world, Taken up in glory.” (NASB)
2nd Timothy 2:11 – 13... “It is a trustworthy statement: For if we died with Him, we will also live with Him; If we endure, we will also reign with Him; If we deny Him, He also will deny us; If we are faithless, He remains faithful, for He cannot deny Himself.” (NASB)
3. passages in the mold of Old Testament poetry...
Luke’s Magnificat (1:46 – 55), Benedictus (1:68 – 79), Gloria in Excelsis (2:14), and Nunc Dimittis (2:29 – 32)
4. passages that have the grand and exalted style of poetry, such as...
Jesus’ lament over Jerusalem (Luke 13:34 – 35... “"O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, {the city} that kills the prophets and stones those sent to her! How often I wanted to gather your children together, just as a hen {gathers} her brood under her wings, and you would not {have it!} "Behold, your house is left to you {desolate;} and I say to you, you will not see Me until {the time} comes when you say, 'BLESSED IS HE WHO COMES IN THE NAME OF THE LORD!'")” (NASB) parts of the Upper Room Discourse (John 14:1 – 7... "Do not let your heart be troubled; believe in God, believe also in Me. "In My Father's house are many dwelling places; if it were not so, I would have told you; for I go to prepare a place for you. "If I go and prepare a place for you, I will come again and receive you to Myself, that where I am, {there} you may be also. "And you know the way where I am going.“ Thomas *said to Him, "Lord, we do not know where You are going, how do we know the way?” Jesus *said to him, "I am the way, and the truth, and the life; no one comes to the Father but through Me. "If you had known Me, you would have known My Father also; from now on you know Him, and have seen Him.") (NASB)
Interpreters of the Bible are often unaware of the special hermeneutical demands of poetry. This means that we often must take a much more tentative attitude in interpreting biblical poetry.
Parallelism
Robert Lowth described three basic types of parallelism: synonymous, antithetic, and synthetic.
Synonymous parallelism: the second line of the poetic form repeats the idea of the first line without any significant addition or subtraction to it.
Proverb 1:20... “Wisdom shouts in the street, She lifts her voice in the square...” (NASB)
Genesis 4:23... “Lamech said to his wives, "Adah and Zillah, Listen to my voice, You wives of Lamech...” (NASB)
Luke 1:46 –47... “And Mary said: "My soul exalts the Lord, And my spirit has rejoiced in God my Savior.” (NASB)
Antithetic parallelism: the second line of poetry contrasts with, or negates, the thought and meaning of the first line.
Proverb 10:1... “The proverbs of Solomon. A wise son makes a father glad, But a foolish son is a grief to his mother.” (NASB)
Proverb 27:6... “Faithful are the wounds of a friend, But deceitful are the kisses of an enemy.” (NASB)
Synthetic parallelism: (more problematic): although poetic lines may be parallel in form, they are not balanced in thought or ideas as the lines in the previous two types are.
Psalm 148:7 – 12... “Praise the LORD from the earth, Sea monsters and all deeps; Fire and hail, snow and clouds; Stormy wind, fulfilling His word; Mountains and all hills; Fruit trees and all cedars; Beasts and all cattle; Creeping things and winged fowl; Kings of the earth and all peoples; Princes and all judges of the earth; Both young men and virgins; Old men and children.” (NASB)
While parallelism is the chief characteristic of biblical poetry, many biblical poems exhibit a very weak parallelism or none at all. Also, some forms of Hebrew prose exhibit a symmetry that could be classified as parallelism. Besides parallelism, other features of Hebrew poetry that tend to distinguish it from prose are: a
relatively greater conciseness or terseness of form and a greater use of certain rhetorical devices.
Synonymous parallelism: the second line of the poetic form repeats the idea of the first line without any significant addition or subtraction to it.
Proverb 1:20... “Wisdom shouts in the street, She lifts her voice in the square...” (NASB)
Genesis 4:23... “Lamech said to his wives, "Adah and Zillah, Listen to my voice, You wives of Lamech...” (NASB)
Luke 1:46 –47... “And Mary said: "My soul exalts the Lord, And my spirit has rejoiced in God my Savior.” (NASB)
Antithetic parallelism: the second line of poetry contrasts with, or negates, the thought and meaning of the first line.
Proverb 10:1... “The proverbs of Solomon. A wise son makes a father glad, But a foolish son is a grief to his mother.” (NASB)
Proverb 27:6... “Faithful are the wounds of a friend, But deceitful are the kisses of an enemy.” (NASB)
Synthetic parallelism: (more problematic): although poetic lines may be parallel in form, they are not balanced in thought or ideas as the lines in the previous two types are.
Psalm 148:7 – 12... “Praise the LORD from the earth, Sea monsters and all deeps; Fire and hail, snow and clouds; Stormy wind, fulfilling His word; Mountains and all hills; Fruit trees and all cedars; Beasts and all cattle; Creeping things and winged fowl; Kings of the earth and all peoples; Princes and all judges of the earth; Both young men and virgins; Old men and children.” (NASB)
While parallelism is the chief characteristic of biblical poetry, many biblical poems exhibit a very weak parallelism or none at all. Also, some forms of Hebrew prose exhibit a symmetry that could be classified as parallelism. Besides parallelism, other features of Hebrew poetry that tend to distinguish it from prose are: a
relatively greater conciseness or terseness of form and a greater use of certain rhetorical devices.
Parallelism / Conciseness or Terseness of Form
Poetry is divided into strophes or stanzas. One of the most common features used to mark off the end of a strophe is the presence of a refrain. Refrain is found in Ugaritic poetry and occurs in some eighteen psalms.
Example: the threefold repetition of the refrain in the continuing Psalm 42 – 43 divides it into three strophes, or stanzas:
Why are you downcast, O my soul?...Why so disturbed within me?...Put your hope in God for I will yet praise HIM, my Savior and my God. (Psalms 42:5, 11; 43:5)
It may be that the Hebrew word 'selah' may also mark the end, or some other meaningful point in the strophe.
It occurs 71 times in 39 psalms as well as in Habakkuk 3:3, 9, 13. But no one knows exactly what the words means or its exact poetic function.
Hebrew poetry is very elliptic. It frequently drops a noun or the verb out of the second line leaving no parallel grammatical form to balance out the second line. There is a decided preference for Heb. poetry to be written generally without conjunctions and with few temporal indicators (when, then, afterward) or logical connectors (thus, therefore). Three common features of Hebrew prose are rare in poetry:
1) The direct-object marker et,
2) The relative pronoun ‘aser (who, which that)
3) The narrative form of the Hebrew verb (the conjunction “and” plus the imperfect tense).
Example: the threefold repetition of the refrain in the continuing Psalm 42 – 43 divides it into three strophes, or stanzas:
Why are you downcast, O my soul?...Why so disturbed within me?...Put your hope in God for I will yet praise HIM, my Savior and my God. (Psalms 42:5, 11; 43:5)
It may be that the Hebrew word 'selah' may also mark the end, or some other meaningful point in the strophe.
It occurs 71 times in 39 psalms as well as in Habakkuk 3:3, 9, 13. But no one knows exactly what the words means or its exact poetic function.
Hebrew poetry is very elliptic. It frequently drops a noun or the verb out of the second line leaving no parallel grammatical form to balance out the second line. There is a decided preference for Heb. poetry to be written generally without conjunctions and with few temporal indicators (when, then, afterward) or logical connectors (thus, therefore). Three common features of Hebrew prose are rare in poetry:
1) The direct-object marker et,
2) The relative pronoun ‘aser (who, which that)
3) The narrative form of the Hebrew verb (the conjunction “and” plus the imperfect tense).
Rhetorical Devices
Hebrew poetry (like all poetry) is rich in the use of imagery and figures of speech. Three particular characteristics:
chiasm, emblematic symbolism, climactic (or staircase) parallelism. These devices can server as clues signaling the presence of poetry and alerting the interpreter to be on the lookout for any special nuances the author intended to convey.
Chiasm
Emblematic symbolism.
One line takes the form of a smile or a metaphor as a figurative illustration of the same statement.
Proverb 11:22... “{As} a ring of gold in a swine's snout {So is} a beautiful woman who lacks discretion.” (NASB)
Proverb 25:25... “{Like} cold water to a weary soul, So is good news from a distant land.” (NASB)
Psalm 42:1...“As the deer pants for the water brooks, So my soul pants for You, O God.”(NASB)
Climactic parallelism.
The poet repeats a group of two or three words in two—sometimes three or four—successive lines.
Psalm 92:9...“For, behold, Your enemies, O LORD, For, behold, Your enemies will perish; All who do iniquity will be scattered.” (NASB)
Psalm 93:3...“The floods have lifted up, O LORD, The floods have lifted up their voice, The floods lift up their pounding waves.” (NASB)
Psalm 96:1 –2... “Sing to the LORD a new song; Sing to the LORD, all the earth. Sing to the LORD, bless His name; proclaim good tidings of His salvation from day to day.” (NASB)
chiasm, emblematic symbolism, climactic (or staircase) parallelism. These devices can server as clues signaling the presence of poetry and alerting the interpreter to be on the lookout for any special nuances the author intended to convey.
Chiasm
Emblematic symbolism.
One line takes the form of a smile or a metaphor as a figurative illustration of the same statement.
Proverb 11:22... “{As} a ring of gold in a swine's snout {So is} a beautiful woman who lacks discretion.” (NASB)
Proverb 25:25... “{Like} cold water to a weary soul, So is good news from a distant land.” (NASB)
Psalm 42:1...“As the deer pants for the water brooks, So my soul pants for You, O God.”(NASB)
Climactic parallelism.
The poet repeats a group of two or three words in two—sometimes three or four—successive lines.
Psalm 92:9...“For, behold, Your enemies, O LORD, For, behold, Your enemies will perish; All who do iniquity will be scattered.” (NASB)
Psalm 93:3...“The floods have lifted up, O LORD, The floods have lifted up their voice, The floods lift up their pounding waves.” (NASB)
Psalm 96:1 –2... “Sing to the LORD a new song; Sing to the LORD, all the earth. Sing to the LORD, bless His name; proclaim good tidings of His salvation from day to day.” (NASB)
Figures of Speech
These devices appear in poetry, as well as narrative, prophecy, the letters, and all other genres. There are questions that can be asked of a text that can serve as guidelines for determining when an author has departed from the strictly literal sense. Is there a mismatch between the subject and the predicate, such as in the statement “God is our Rock”? Does the predicate attribute to the subject actions that are not possible in the real world, such as “the mountains clapped their hands”? Is a colorful word immediately followed by a word that defines or restricts it, such as “we are dead” directly followed by the phrase “in our trespasses and sin”? Might there be a reason for a figure of speech at this point in the text in order to give it a more dramatic emphasis, a heightened feeling, or to make it more memorable? Is the feature I identified as a figure of speech identifiable in other contexts? The most frequently observed types: figures of comparison, addition or fullness of expression, relation or association, contrast and omission.
Figures of Comparison
Simile. An expressed or formal comparison between two things or two actions in which one is said to be “as,” or “like” the other.
Isaiah 55:10 – 11... "For as the rain and the snow come down from heaven, And do not return there without watering the earth And making it bear and sprout, And furnishing seed to the sower and bread to the eater; So will My word be which goes forth from My mouth; It will not return to Me empty, Without accomplishing what I desire, And without succeeding {in the matter} for which I sent it." (NASB)
Metaphor (more difficult, but more frequent). A figure of speech where the comparison is unexpressed or merely implied. An idea is carried over from one element to another without directly saying that one is “like” or “as” the other.
Example: “And He said to them, "Go and tell that fox, 'Behold, I cast out demons and perform cures today and tomorrow, and the third {day} I reach My goal.’” (Luke 13:32...NASB)
There are three parts in every simile or metaphor:
the subject or item being illustrated by the image,
the image of the direct or implied comparison,
the point of the direct or implied comparison and similarity.
Parable and Allegory. When a simile is extended into a story, it becomes a parable; when a metaphor is extended into a story, it becomes an allegory. One of the more memorable biblical allegories is the one on marital fidelity in Proverbs 5:15 – 23... “Drink water from your own cistern and fresh water from your own well. Should your springs be dispersed abroad, Streams of water in the streets? Let them be yours alone And not for strangers with you. Let your fountain be blessed, And rejoice in the wife of your youth. {As} a loving hind and a graceful doe, Let her breasts satisfy you at all times; Be exhilarated always with her love. For why should you, my son, be exhilarated with an adulteress And embrace the bosom of a foreigner? For the ways of a man are before the eyes of the LORD, And He watches all his paths. His own iniquities will capture the wicked, And he will be held with the cords of his sin. He will die for lack of instruction, And in the greatness of his folly he will go astray.” (NASB)
Isaiah 55:10 – 11... "For as the rain and the snow come down from heaven, And do not return there without watering the earth And making it bear and sprout, And furnishing seed to the sower and bread to the eater; So will My word be which goes forth from My mouth; It will not return to Me empty, Without accomplishing what I desire, And without succeeding {in the matter} for which I sent it." (NASB)
Metaphor (more difficult, but more frequent). A figure of speech where the comparison is unexpressed or merely implied. An idea is carried over from one element to another without directly saying that one is “like” or “as” the other.
Example: “And He said to them, "Go and tell that fox, 'Behold, I cast out demons and perform cures today and tomorrow, and the third {day} I reach My goal.’” (Luke 13:32...NASB)
There are three parts in every simile or metaphor:
the subject or item being illustrated by the image,
the image of the direct or implied comparison,
the point of the direct or implied comparison and similarity.
Parable and Allegory. When a simile is extended into a story, it becomes a parable; when a metaphor is extended into a story, it becomes an allegory. One of the more memorable biblical allegories is the one on marital fidelity in Proverbs 5:15 – 23... “Drink water from your own cistern and fresh water from your own well. Should your springs be dispersed abroad, Streams of water in the streets? Let them be yours alone And not for strangers with you. Let your fountain be blessed, And rejoice in the wife of your youth. {As} a loving hind and a graceful doe, Let her breasts satisfy you at all times; Be exhilarated always with her love. For why should you, my son, be exhilarated with an adulteress And embrace the bosom of a foreigner? For the ways of a man are before the eyes of the LORD, And He watches all his paths. His own iniquities will capture the wicked, And he will be held with the cords of his sin. He will die for lack of instruction, And in the greatness of his folly he will go astray.” (NASB)
Figures of Addition or Fullness of Expression
Pleonasm.
This figure involves a redundancy of expression used in order to obtain a certain effect on the mind of the listener or reader. Genesis 40:23 says the chief cupbearer “did not remember Joseph; he forgot him.”
Paronomasia.
It involves a fullness of expression by repeating words that are similar in sound, but not necessarily similar in sense or meaning in all cases, for often the similar sounding words are used merely to achieve a certain effect.
Example: tohu wabohu, “waste and void.” (Genesis 1:2)...Panti pantote pasan, “in all things always having all sufficiency” (2nd Corinthians 9:8)
It is not intended to be construed as having a meaning apart from the other word.
Hyperbole.
A conscious exaggeration or a type of overstatement in order to increase the effect of what is being said.
Psalm 6:6...“I am weary with my sighing; Every night I make my bed swim, I dissolve my couch with my tears.” (NASB)
Matthew 5:29... “If your right eye makes you stumble, tear it out and throw it from you; for it is better for you to lose one of the parts of your body, than for your whole body to be thrown into hell.” (NASB)
Judges 7:12... “Now the Midianites and the Amalekites and all the sons of the east were lying in the valley as numerous as locusts; and their camels were without number, as numerous as the sand on the seashore.” (NASB)
Hendiadys.
Using two words when only one thing is being referred to.
Genesis 19:24 Hebrew literally says that “it rained down fire and brimstone.” The NIV acknowledges the hendiadys, translating “burning sulfur” (or it could be “brimstone that was on fire”).
John 1:17 where “grace and truth” may simply be “God’s gracious truth.”
Hendiatris.
Three words are used to express a single concept.
John 14:6 Jesus says, “I am the way, the truth, and the life,” probably meaning that he was the one, true, living way to the Father.
Daniel 3:7 Nebuchadnezzar commanded that “all the people, the nation, and the languages” (literal translation) should fall down and worship the image he had set up.
Languages do not fall down and worship; the figure is a hendiatris in which“the people of every nation and language” were required to bow down.
This figure involves a redundancy of expression used in order to obtain a certain effect on the mind of the listener or reader. Genesis 40:23 says the chief cupbearer “did not remember Joseph; he forgot him.”
Paronomasia.
It involves a fullness of expression by repeating words that are similar in sound, but not necessarily similar in sense or meaning in all cases, for often the similar sounding words are used merely to achieve a certain effect.
Example: tohu wabohu, “waste and void.” (Genesis 1:2)...Panti pantote pasan, “in all things always having all sufficiency” (2nd Corinthians 9:8)
It is not intended to be construed as having a meaning apart from the other word.
Hyperbole.
A conscious exaggeration or a type of overstatement in order to increase the effect of what is being said.
Psalm 6:6...“I am weary with my sighing; Every night I make my bed swim, I dissolve my couch with my tears.” (NASB)
Matthew 5:29... “If your right eye makes you stumble, tear it out and throw it from you; for it is better for you to lose one of the parts of your body, than for your whole body to be thrown into hell.” (NASB)
Judges 7:12... “Now the Midianites and the Amalekites and all the sons of the east were lying in the valley as numerous as locusts; and their camels were without number, as numerous as the sand on the seashore.” (NASB)
Hendiadys.
Using two words when only one thing is being referred to.
Genesis 19:24 Hebrew literally says that “it rained down fire and brimstone.” The NIV acknowledges the hendiadys, translating “burning sulfur” (or it could be “brimstone that was on fire”).
John 1:17 where “grace and truth” may simply be “God’s gracious truth.”
Hendiatris.
Three words are used to express a single concept.
John 14:6 Jesus says, “I am the way, the truth, and the life,” probably meaning that he was the one, true, living way to the Father.
Daniel 3:7 Nebuchadnezzar commanded that “all the people, the nation, and the languages” (literal translation) should fall down and worship the image he had set up.
Languages do not fall down and worship; the figure is a hendiatris in which“the people of every nation and language” were required to bow down.
Figures of Relation and Association
Metonymy.
Because figures of speech are based on some type of resemblance or relation that different objects bear to one another, it is possible to express a cause when the effect is intended, or to substitute one noun for another noun closely associated with it. To refer to the U.S. military establishment by the building that houses it, the Pentagon, is a metonymy.
Luke 16:29 says the rich man’s brothers had “Moses and the Prophets”—i.e., the books written by Moses and the Prophets.
2nd Samuel 7:16 David’s “house” and “throne” stand for his dynasty and family line and his kingship.
Synecdoche.
The figure by which the whole can be substituted for the part, or a part for the whole.
Luke 2:1 says that “all the world” was to be taxed, meaning, of course, “the entire Roman world.”
Matthew 12:40 uses the formula “three days and three nights,” but does not intend to signify a full 72 hours anymore than 1st Samuel 30:12. There the Egyptian answers “three days and three nights” and then added, “and today is the third day.”
Judges 12:7 Jephthah was buried“in the cities of Gilead.” The NIV correctly renders it, “[he] was buried in a town of Gilead.”
Because figures of speech are based on some type of resemblance or relation that different objects bear to one another, it is possible to express a cause when the effect is intended, or to substitute one noun for another noun closely associated with it. To refer to the U.S. military establishment by the building that houses it, the Pentagon, is a metonymy.
Luke 16:29 says the rich man’s brothers had “Moses and the Prophets”—i.e., the books written by Moses and the Prophets.
2nd Samuel 7:16 David’s “house” and “throne” stand for his dynasty and family line and his kingship.
Synecdoche.
The figure by which the whole can be substituted for the part, or a part for the whole.
Luke 2:1 says that “all the world” was to be taxed, meaning, of course, “the entire Roman world.”
Matthew 12:40 uses the formula “three days and three nights,” but does not intend to signify a full 72 hours anymore than 1st Samuel 30:12. There the Egyptian answers “three days and three nights” and then added, “and today is the third day.”
Judges 12:7 Jephthah was buried“in the cities of Gilead.” The NIV correctly renders it, “[he] was buried in a town of Gilead.”
Figures of Contrast
Irony.
Using words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. It is most frequently used in contexts where one might also find sarcasm or ridicule as well.
2nd Samuel 6:20 Michal (David’s wife) scoffed, “How the king of Israel has distinguished himself today . . .”
Job 12:1 tells his so-called friends, “Doubtless you are the people, and wisdom will die with you!”
Litotes.
A form of understatement that affirms a statement by negating its contrary.
Acts 21:39 Paul says “I am a Jew, from Tarsus in Cilicia, a citizen of no ordinary city.”
Genesis 18:27 Abraham belittled himself (he was only “dust and ashes”) in order to magnify the greatness of God.
Euphemism.
This form of contrast appears in the substitution of a gentler, more pleasant and modest expression for a word that is more disagreeable, harsh or indelicate. We prefer to refer to the“bathroom” rather than using the word “toilet.” So Judges 3:24 and 1st Samuel 24:3 refer to a man “covering his feet” as a euphemism for defecating, because his garments would fall around his feet as he stooped down. Acts 2:39 and Ephesians 2:13 refer to the Gentiles without using the word—“all/those who are afar off/away.”
Using words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. It is most frequently used in contexts where one might also find sarcasm or ridicule as well.
2nd Samuel 6:20 Michal (David’s wife) scoffed, “How the king of Israel has distinguished himself today . . .”
Job 12:1 tells his so-called friends, “Doubtless you are the people, and wisdom will die with you!”
Litotes.
A form of understatement that affirms a statement by negating its contrary.
Acts 21:39 Paul says “I am a Jew, from Tarsus in Cilicia, a citizen of no ordinary city.”
Genesis 18:27 Abraham belittled himself (he was only “dust and ashes”) in order to magnify the greatness of God.
Euphemism.
This form of contrast appears in the substitution of a gentler, more pleasant and modest expression for a word that is more disagreeable, harsh or indelicate. We prefer to refer to the“bathroom” rather than using the word “toilet.” So Judges 3:24 and 1st Samuel 24:3 refer to a man “covering his feet” as a euphemism for defecating, because his garments would fall around his feet as he stooped down. Acts 2:39 and Ephesians 2:13 refer to the Gentiles without using the word—“all/those who are afar off/away.”
Figures of Omission
Often the text omits certain words or expressions, leaving the sense to be supplied by the reader.
Zeugma.
This form yokes two subjects or objects together with one verb in which the verb actually functions appropriately for only one of the two subjects or objects. Many of these have been clarified by supplied verbs in most modern translations, so they would show up only in literal rendering of the Hebrew or Greek text.
Ellipsis.
This is the larger category. In this case an incomplete statement must be filled out in order to finish the thought.
There may be ellipses of everything from the subject, the verb, a pronoun, to whole clauses. The last kind can be illustrated in 2nd Thessalonians 2:3, where the introductory injunction “Don’t let anyone deceive you in any way” is followed by the statement “for [that day will not come] until the rebellion occurs and the man of lawlessness is revealed, the man doomed to destruction” (NIV). Brackets indicate the omitted phrase.
Zeugma.
This form yokes two subjects or objects together with one verb in which the verb actually functions appropriately for only one of the two subjects or objects. Many of these have been clarified by supplied verbs in most modern translations, so they would show up only in literal rendering of the Hebrew or Greek text.
Ellipsis.
This is the larger category. In this case an incomplete statement must be filled out in order to finish the thought.
There may be ellipses of everything from the subject, the verb, a pronoun, to whole clauses. The last kind can be illustrated in 2nd Thessalonians 2:3, where the introductory injunction “Don’t let anyone deceive you in any way” is followed by the statement “for [that day will not come] until the rebellion occurs and the man of lawlessness is revealed, the man doomed to destruction” (NIV). Brackets indicate the omitted phrase.
Conclusion...
Figures of speech will always prove to be a rich source of insights, calling our attention to something the writer wants to highlight. The interpreter, however, must be careful with figures of comparison to avoid creating more comparisons than the one(s) the writer intended. With figures of relation, contrast addition or omission care must be taken to retain as much of the point that is being made as contextual constraints and range of usage will dictate.
Figures of speech will always prove to be a rich source of insights, calling our attention to something the writer wants to highlight. The interpreter, however, must be careful with figures of comparison to avoid creating more comparisons than the one(s) the writer intended. With figures of relation, contrast addition or omission care must be taken to retain as much of the point that is being made as contextual constraints and range of usage will dictate.
Wisdom Literature
The books known as Wisdom Literature express the writers’ concern that we order our lives according to God’s own order in the world. “The whole duty of man is to fear God and keep his commandments” (Ecclesiastes 12:13... The conclusion, when all has been heard, {is:} fear God and keep His commandments, because this {applies to} every person.” (NASB))
Those who choose to despise divine wisdom and discipline are bluntly labeled fools (Proverb 1:7... The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge; Fools despise wisdom and instruction.” (NASB))
In addition to Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs, Catholic scholarship includes the Apocryphal books Ecclesiasticus (Ben Sirach) and the Wisdom of Solomon in the Wisdom Literature. To this list Jews and Christians usually add certain psalms that display the same literary style or the same thematic material as Wisdom Literature.
These psalms generally display the following features characteristic of Wisdom Literature:
Alphabetic acrostics (successive verses begin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet)
Numerical sayings (“six things the Lord hates; yea, seven...”)
“Blessed” sayings
“Better” sayings (“better the little the righteous have than the wealth of many wicked”)
Comparisons and admonitions
Addresses of father to son
The use of proverbs, similes, rhetorical questions, and phrases such as “listen to me”
Usually classed as Wisdom Psalms are: 1, 19b, 32, 34, 37, 49, 78, 111, 112, 119, 127, 128, and 133. Hebrew Wisdom is really a composite with many subgenres.
Those who choose to despise divine wisdom and discipline are bluntly labeled fools (Proverb 1:7... The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge; Fools despise wisdom and instruction.” (NASB))
In addition to Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs, Catholic scholarship includes the Apocryphal books Ecclesiasticus (Ben Sirach) and the Wisdom of Solomon in the Wisdom Literature. To this list Jews and Christians usually add certain psalms that display the same literary style or the same thematic material as Wisdom Literature.
These psalms generally display the following features characteristic of Wisdom Literature:
Alphabetic acrostics (successive verses begin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet)
Numerical sayings (“six things the Lord hates; yea, seven...”)
“Blessed” sayings
“Better” sayings (“better the little the righteous have than the wealth of many wicked”)
Comparisons and admonitions
Addresses of father to son
The use of proverbs, similes, rhetorical questions, and phrases such as “listen to me”
Usually classed as Wisdom Psalms are: 1, 19b, 32, 34, 37, 49, 78, 111, 112, 119, 127, 128, and 133. Hebrew Wisdom is really a composite with many subgenres.
The Proverb
Proverbs are brief sayings that are memorable, embody the wisdom of many, possess a fullness of meaning with a wide application, and have a bit of a kick or bite them them to ensure their saltiness and continued usefulness.
They are found in practically all parts of the Bible. By their nature and form, proverbs are generalized statements that cover the widest number of instances, but in no case are they to be taken as a set of unbending rules that must be applied in every case without exceptions. On the contrary, one is able to pit proverb against proverb, both in our culture and sometimes in scripture. “He who hesitates is lost” versus “Look before you leap.”
Proverbs 26:4– 5... “Do not answer a fool according to his folly, Or you will also be like him. Answer a fool as his folly {deserves,} That he not be wise in his own eyes.” (NASB)
The writer has pointed to two scenarios in which the wise person would be instructed if he applied truth wisely.
They are found in practically all parts of the Bible. By their nature and form, proverbs are generalized statements that cover the widest number of instances, but in no case are they to be taken as a set of unbending rules that must be applied in every case without exceptions. On the contrary, one is able to pit proverb against proverb, both in our culture and sometimes in scripture. “He who hesitates is lost” versus “Look before you leap.”
Proverbs 26:4– 5... “Do not answer a fool according to his folly, Or you will also be like him. Answer a fool as his folly {deserves,} That he not be wise in his own eyes.” (NASB)
The writer has pointed to two scenarios in which the wise person would be instructed if he applied truth wisely.
The Saying
Sayings typically are statements that not what does or does not take place from time to time. Again, they are not to be taken as fixed rules. They may be didactic or experiential.
Didactic--Proverb 14:31... “He who oppresses the poor taunts his Maker, But he who is gracious to the needy honors Him.” (NASB)
Experiential (describing situations that are apt to come up often but have not fixed rules)--Proverb 17:28... “Even a fool, when he keeps silent, is considered wise; When he closes his lips, he is {considered} prudent.” (NASB)
Often these sayings are grouped around one topic (Proverbs 1 – 9 returning time and again to the contrast of Madame Folly and Lady Wisdom).
Didactic--Proverb 14:31... “He who oppresses the poor taunts his Maker, But he who is gracious to the needy honors Him.” (NASB)
Experiential (describing situations that are apt to come up often but have not fixed rules)--Proverb 17:28... “Even a fool, when he keeps silent, is considered wise; When he closes his lips, he is {considered} prudent.” (NASB)
Often these sayings are grouped around one topic (Proverbs 1 – 9 returning time and again to the contrast of Madame Folly and Lady Wisdom).
The Riddle
The riddle is designed to puzzle and to perplex the listener or reader in order initially to obscure and hide some parts of its meaning, thereby testing the skill of those who attempt to solve it. The best-known riddle in the Bible is in Judges 14:14 (not in Wisdom sections). “So he said to them, "Out of the eater came something to eat, And out of the strong came something sweet." But they could not tell the riddle in three days.” (NASB) The Queen of Sheba was one of those who came to Solomon’s court “to test” him with riddles and hard questions (1st Kings 10:1... “Now when the queen of Sheba heard about the fame of Solomon concerning the name of the LORD, she came to test him with difficult questions.” (NASB)). Proverb 1:6... “To understand a proverb and a figure, The words of the wise and their riddles.” (NASB) was one of the purposes for Solomon’s writing the book of Proverbs.
There are New Testament riddles as well: Revelations 13:18 asks whether anyone has insight; if so, “let him calculate the number of the beast, for it is man’s number. His number is 666. Some riddles are obviously still just that, a riddle. Proverb 26:10 is translated in various ways. “{Like} an archer who wounds everyone, So is he who hires a fool or who hires those who pass by.” (NASB)
There are New Testament riddles as well: Revelations 13:18 asks whether anyone has insight; if so, “let him calculate the number of the beast, for it is man’s number. His number is 666. Some riddles are obviously still just that, a riddle. Proverb 26:10 is translated in various ways. “{Like} an archer who wounds everyone, So is he who hires a fool or who hires those who pass by.” (NASB)
The Allegory
An allegory is an extended metaphor—just as the parable is an extended simile. The allegory contains its interpretation within itself; in metaphor and allegory the things signified is identified with the image itself. Christians and salt are seen as one for the sake of the metaphor, “You are the salt of the earth” (Matthew 5:13... “You are the salt of the earth; but if the salt has become tasteless, how can it be made salty {again?} It is no longer good for anything, except to be thrown out and trampled under foot by men.” (NASB)) Jesus and the vine are linked as one for the moment in John 15:1... “I am the true vine, and My Father is the vinedresser.” (NASB)
When expanded into a narrative with more details, the figure becomes an allegory. Proverbs 5:15– 23 is an extended metaphor...
"Drink water from your own cistern And fresh water from your own well. Should your springs be dispersed abroad, Streams of water in the streets? Let them be yours alone And not for strangers with you. Let your fountain be blessed, And rejoice in the wife of your youth. {As} a loving hind and a graceful doe, Let her breasts satisfy you at all times; Be exhilarated always with her love. For why should you, my son, be exhilarated with an adulteress And embrace the bosom of a foreigner? For the ways of a man are before the eyes of the LORD, And He watches all his paths. His own iniquities will capture the wicked, And he will be held with the cords of his sin. He will die for lack of instruction, And in the greatness of his folly he will go astray." (NASB)
This allegory encourages sexual intimacy amid marital fidelity with the image of drinking water from one’s own cistern or well. The key is v. 18, “Rejoice in the wife of your youth.” At first it appears that the line is out of place, but when the writer continues in v. 19,“May her breast satisfy you always, may you ever be captivated by her love,” it is clear that it is an allegory.
Another striking allegory is Ecclesiastes 12:1 – 7 where the imagery depicts the effect of advancing years.
“Remember also your Creator in the days of your youth, before the evil days come and the years draw near when you will say, "I have no delight in them“; before the sun and the light, the moon and the stars are darkened, and clouds return after the rain; in the day that the watchmen of the house tremble, and mighty men stoop, the grinding ones stand idle because they are few, and those who look through windows grow dim; and the doors on the street are shut as the sound of the grinding mill is low, and one will arise at the sound of the bird, and all the daughters of song will sing softly. Furthermore, men are afraid of a high place and of terrors on the road; the almond tree blossoms, the grasshopper drags himself along, and the caperberry is ineffective. For man goes to his eternal home while mourners go about in the street. {Remember Him} before the silver cord is broken and the golden bowl is crushed, the pitcher by the well is shattered and the wheel at the cistern is crushed; then the dust will return to the earth as it was, and the spirit will return to God who gave it.” (NASB)
When expanded into a narrative with more details, the figure becomes an allegory. Proverbs 5:15– 23 is an extended metaphor...
"Drink water from your own cistern And fresh water from your own well. Should your springs be dispersed abroad, Streams of water in the streets? Let them be yours alone And not for strangers with you. Let your fountain be blessed, And rejoice in the wife of your youth. {As} a loving hind and a graceful doe, Let her breasts satisfy you at all times; Be exhilarated always with her love. For why should you, my son, be exhilarated with an adulteress And embrace the bosom of a foreigner? For the ways of a man are before the eyes of the LORD, And He watches all his paths. His own iniquities will capture the wicked, And he will be held with the cords of his sin. He will die for lack of instruction, And in the greatness of his folly he will go astray." (NASB)
This allegory encourages sexual intimacy amid marital fidelity with the image of drinking water from one’s own cistern or well. The key is v. 18, “Rejoice in the wife of your youth.” At first it appears that the line is out of place, but when the writer continues in v. 19,“May her breast satisfy you always, may you ever be captivated by her love,” it is clear that it is an allegory.
Another striking allegory is Ecclesiastes 12:1 – 7 where the imagery depicts the effect of advancing years.
“Remember also your Creator in the days of your youth, before the evil days come and the years draw near when you will say, "I have no delight in them“; before the sun and the light, the moon and the stars are darkened, and clouds return after the rain; in the day that the watchmen of the house tremble, and mighty men stoop, the grinding ones stand idle because they are few, and those who look through windows grow dim; and the doors on the street are shut as the sound of the grinding mill is low, and one will arise at the sound of the bird, and all the daughters of song will sing softly. Furthermore, men are afraid of a high place and of terrors on the road; the almond tree blossoms, the grasshopper drags himself along, and the caperberry is ineffective. For man goes to his eternal home while mourners go about in the street. {Remember Him} before the silver cord is broken and the golden bowl is crushed, the pitcher by the well is shattered and the wheel at the cistern is crushed; then the dust will return to the earth as it was, and the spirit will return to God who gave it.” (NASB)
The Admonition
This subgenre is specially associated with the Egyptians. Admonitions appear in either a positive form (commands) or a negative expression (prohibitions). Normally a motivational clause is attached explaining why the injunction is being issued and citing the results that will follow.
Proverb 23:3 admonishes... “Do not desire his delicacies, For it is deceptive food.”
(NASB)
Proverb 23:3 admonishes... “Do not desire his delicacies, For it is deceptive food.”
(NASB)
The Dialogue
The book of Job is the obvious example of the extensive use of dialogue in Wisdom literature—the dialogue between Job and his “friends.” Other Scripture portion that demonstrate weak affinities with dialogue are...
Proverbs 5:12– 14... “And you say, "How I have hated instruction! And my heart spurned reproof! "I have not listened to the voice of my teachers, Nor inclined my ear to my instructors! "I was almost in utter ruin In the midst of the assembly and
congregation.” (NASB)
Proverbs 7:13– 21... “So she seizes him and kisses him And with a brazen face she says to him: "I was due to offer peace offerings; Today I have paid my vows. "Therefore I have come out to meet you, To seek your presence earnestly, and I have found you. "I have spread my couch with coverings, With colored linens of Egypt. "I have sprinkled my bed With myrrh, aloes and cinnamon. "Come, let us drink our fill of love until morning; Let us delight ourselves with caresses. "For my husband is not at home, He has gone on a long journey; He has taken a bag of money with him, At the full moon he will come home.” With her many persuasions she entices him; With her flattering lips she seduces him.” (NASB)
Proverbs 8:4– 36..."To you, O men, I call, And my voice is to the sons of men. "O naive ones, understand prudence; And, O fools, understand wisdom. "Listen, for I will speak noble things; And the opening of my lips {will reveal} right things. "For my mouth will utter truth; And wickedness is an abomination to my lips. "All the utterances of my mouth are in righteousness; there is nothing crooked or perverted in them. "They are all straightforward to him who understands, And right to those who find knowledge. "Take my instruction and not silver, And knowledge rather than choicest gold. "For wisdom is better than jewels; And all desirable things cannot compare with her. "I, wisdom, dwell with prudence, And I find knowledge {and} discretion. "The fear of The LORD is to hate evil; Pride and arrogance and the evil way And the perverted mouth, I hate. "Counsel is mine and sound wisdom; I am understanding, power is mine. "By me kings reign, And rulers decree justice. "By me princes rule, and nobles, All who judge rightly. "I love those who love me; And those who diligently seek me will find me. "Riches and honor are with me, Enduring wealth and righteousness. "My fruit is better than gold, even pure gold, And my yield {better} than choicest silver. "I walk in the way of righteousness, In the midst of the paths of justice, To endow those who love me with wealth, That I may fill their treasuries. "The LORD possessed me at the beginning of His way, Before His works of old. "From everlasting I was established, From the beginning, from the earliest times of the earth. "When there were no depths I was brought forth, when there were no springs abounding with water. "Before the mountains were settled, Before the hills I was brought forth; while He had not yet made the earth and the fields, Nor the first dust of the world. "When He established the heavens, I was there, When He inscribed a circle on the face of the deep, When He made firm the skies above, When the springs of the deep became fixed, When He set for the sea its boundary So that the water would not transgress His command, When He marked out the foundations of the earth; Then I was beside Him, {as} a master workman; And I was daily {His} delight, Rejoicing always before Him, Rejoicing in the world, His earth, And {having} my delight in the sons of men. "Now therefore, {O} sons, listen to me, For blessed are they who keep my ways. "Heed instruction and be wise, And do not neglect {it.} "Blessed is the man who listens to me, Watching daily at my gates, Waiting at my doorposts. "For he who finds me finds life And obtains favor from the LORD. "But he who sins against me injures himself; All those who hate me love death." (NASB)
Proverbs 5:12– 14... “And you say, "How I have hated instruction! And my heart spurned reproof! "I have not listened to the voice of my teachers, Nor inclined my ear to my instructors! "I was almost in utter ruin In the midst of the assembly and
congregation.” (NASB)
Proverbs 7:13– 21... “So she seizes him and kisses him And with a brazen face she says to him: "I was due to offer peace offerings; Today I have paid my vows. "Therefore I have come out to meet you, To seek your presence earnestly, and I have found you. "I have spread my couch with coverings, With colored linens of Egypt. "I have sprinkled my bed With myrrh, aloes and cinnamon. "Come, let us drink our fill of love until morning; Let us delight ourselves with caresses. "For my husband is not at home, He has gone on a long journey; He has taken a bag of money with him, At the full moon he will come home.” With her many persuasions she entices him; With her flattering lips she seduces him.” (NASB)
Proverbs 8:4– 36..."To you, O men, I call, And my voice is to the sons of men. "O naive ones, understand prudence; And, O fools, understand wisdom. "Listen, for I will speak noble things; And the opening of my lips {will reveal} right things. "For my mouth will utter truth; And wickedness is an abomination to my lips. "All the utterances of my mouth are in righteousness; there is nothing crooked or perverted in them. "They are all straightforward to him who understands, And right to those who find knowledge. "Take my instruction and not silver, And knowledge rather than choicest gold. "For wisdom is better than jewels; And all desirable things cannot compare with her. "I, wisdom, dwell with prudence, And I find knowledge {and} discretion. "The fear of The LORD is to hate evil; Pride and arrogance and the evil way And the perverted mouth, I hate. "Counsel is mine and sound wisdom; I am understanding, power is mine. "By me kings reign, And rulers decree justice. "By me princes rule, and nobles, All who judge rightly. "I love those who love me; And those who diligently seek me will find me. "Riches and honor are with me, Enduring wealth and righteousness. "My fruit is better than gold, even pure gold, And my yield {better} than choicest silver. "I walk in the way of righteousness, In the midst of the paths of justice, To endow those who love me with wealth, That I may fill their treasuries. "The LORD possessed me at the beginning of His way, Before His works of old. "From everlasting I was established, From the beginning, from the earliest times of the earth. "When there were no depths I was brought forth, when there were no springs abounding with water. "Before the mountains were settled, Before the hills I was brought forth; while He had not yet made the earth and the fields, Nor the first dust of the world. "When He established the heavens, I was there, When He inscribed a circle on the face of the deep, When He made firm the skies above, When the springs of the deep became fixed, When He set for the sea its boundary So that the water would not transgress His command, When He marked out the foundations of the earth; Then I was beside Him, {as} a master workman; And I was daily {His} delight, Rejoicing always before Him, Rejoicing in the world, His earth, And {having} my delight in the sons of men. "Now therefore, {O} sons, listen to me, For blessed are they who keep my ways. "Heed instruction and be wise, And do not neglect {it.} "Blessed is the man who listens to me, Watching daily at my gates, Waiting at my doorposts. "For he who finds me finds life And obtains favor from the LORD. "But he who sins against me injures himself; All those who hate me love death." (NASB)
The Onomastica
Some have theorized that passages like Job 28 or Job 38, along with Psalms 104 and 148, perhaps arose in part from lists on various topics.
Conclusion...
Each subgenre will call for an adjustment in the interpretive strategy for the text. Perhaps more practical skill is required in determining the exact character and scope of this type of literature than that of any other biblical form. Use context whenever it will help in clarifying the background for any of the differing forms.
Each subgenre will call for an adjustment in the interpretive strategy for the text. Perhaps more practical skill is required in determining the exact character and scope of this type of literature than that of any other biblical form. Use context whenever it will help in clarifying the background for any of the differing forms.